Online Radicalization

Impact

Threatens public discourse and free speech

Process

Can involve a 'bottom-up' self-radicalization where individuals seek out extremist content independently

Mechanism

Fueled by misinformation and disinformation

Effectiveness

Mixed modes of online and offline radicalization emerge as a standard model and are seen as most effective

Related concept

Reciprocal radicalisation (political shifts can bring about new patterns)

Conceptual issue

Ambiguity around what constitutes 'radicalisation' (cognitive process vs. developing extreme beliefs)

Vulnerable users

Adolescents, vulnerable internet users

Key characteristic

Contributes to 'Salad Bar Extremism'

Contributing factor

Increased accessibility of extremist material online

Affected demographic

'COVID Generation'

Observable behaviors

Engaging in an online network, learning about an event online

Mechanism for grievance development

Deeper immersion in grievance-based perspectives is most effectively achieved by combining asocial and social engagement online

Associated individual profile (purely online)

Socially isolated, more prone to mental illness, and less likely to commit acts of violence

2002

2012-2015

2013

2020-01-01

2023

In the first narrative, online radicalization is seen as posing a low threat by itself. While Internet activity has increased over time in all studies reviewed, this often seems to be attributable to the wider spread of Internet technologies and Internet use in society. In particular, the rise of social media among terrorist actors is closely mirrored by the global development these platforms have seen. Mixed modes of online and offline radicalization emerge as a standard model, and most [...] In sum, the Internet provides several functions and mechanisms that allow for online radicalization, and likely so in the absence of actual social interaction. It seems that development of a grievance-based perspective, and the deeper immersion therein, are most effectively achieved by combining both asocial and social engagement online. It should be added, however, that there is general agreement that a combination of online and offline processes is seen as most effective in the furthering of [...] When viewing online radicalization as a specific radicalization pathway, threat levels appear even lower. In our work to date (Kenyon et al., 2022a), online radicalization does coincide with an offender type that is socially isolated, more prone to mental illness and associated conditions, and less likely to commit acts of violence. This type is assessed as low in engagement with extremist ideologies, or groups representing such ideologies, and further shows lowest levels of intent and low

2013). For around fifteen years, the idea of ‘online radicalisation’ has been a pressing concern within policy circles and the media, as well as receiving substantial academic interest. For many years, scholars noted that there was a lack of data-driven research which analysed the phenomenon, instead relying on anecdotal evidence and an over-emphasis on analyses of extremist online content (Gill et al. 2015; von Behr et al. 2013). However, recent years have seen a substantial increase in [...] researchers have highlighted several conceptual issues surrounding online radicalisation. Macdonald and Whittaker (2019) note that it is unclear what constitutes enough online activity to be classified as ‘online radicalisation.’ They also highlight three phrases related to the phenomenon that are ambiguous. First, it is often not clear what constitutes ‘radicalisation’ – for some it is a cognitive process which ends with an individual developing extreme beliefs, while for some it is a [...] their own country. Gill et al. (2017) seek to disaggregate the concept of online radicalisation into a set of observable behaviours, such as engaging in an online network and learning about their event online.4 They find that over half used the Internet for activities relating to their plot; importantly, when the date range 4 Their sample includes 223 UK-based individuals convicted of terrorism between 1995-2015. ONLINE RADICALISATION WHAT WE KNOW 13 is narrowed to 2012-2015, that number rises

In addition to Hoffman’s top-down model, a scholars mention a bottom-up process of radicalization also exists, where individuals seek out extremist content independently. This self-radicalization occurs when people are exposed to misinformation, conspiracy theories, and extremist ideologies on platforms like Telegram, 4chan, and Reddit. These individuals often gravitate toward communities that validate their grievances and reinforce their growing extremist views (Binder & Kenyon, 2022). [...] The tragic events in Jacksonville and Lake Arrowhead highlight the dangerous consequences of online radicalization. These cases exemplify how extremist ideologies can be amplified and spread through digital platforms, leading to real-world violence. To better understand the motivations of individuals involved in such acts, it is helpful to consider the four-stage model of terrorist mindsets which is represented in Figure 2. The four-stage model of terrorist mindsets outlines ideological [...] In 2023, there was shooting spree in Jacksonville, Florida, where a white supremacist killed three people in a predominantly Black neighborhood, exemplifying the dangerous potential of this online radicalization. The perpetrator was inspired by other white supremacist killers, drawing on their hateful manifestos to inform his own violent plans. Similarly, in Lake Arrowhead, California, in 2023, a shooting of a shop owner sparked by an argument over a Pride flag highlights the direct connection

Although many scholars have tackled the question of online radicalization, far fewer have connected the nuances of the online world to their offline impacts beyond the simple question of whether terrorists inspired online commit violence offline. This article aims to assess how online extremism changes over time, and therefore, how it impacts terrorism and counterterrorism on the ground level. This longer-term and more strategic look at the history of online radicalization is worthwhile in part [...] because it captures the array of research performed over several decades and sorts it into three overarching, chronological categories. Research conducted into key sub-elements such as platforms, groups, networks, moderation evasion, and radicalization patterns informs the framework and helps reveal the characteristics of each generation. The following paper should therefore be understood, in part, as a literature review highlighting important work on key factors in online radicalization. It [...] When a 13-year-old boy was caught by Estonian police in early 2020 for leading an international terrorist organization, shockwaves rippled through the Western counterterrorism community. But, it was merely the latest uncomfortable milestone in a long-term trend of extremist material growing increasingly accessible online. “Accessing a world of hate online today is as easy as it was tuning into Saturday morning cartoons on television,” Oren Segal of the Anti-Defamation League (ADL) opined,